source: mainline/generic/src/mm/as.c@ 567807b1

/*
 * Copyright (C) 2001-2006 Jakub Jermar
 * All rights reserved.
 *
 * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
 * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
 * are met:
 *
 * - Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
 *   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
 * - Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
 *   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
 *   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
 * - The name of the author may not be used to endorse or promote products
 *   derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
 *
 * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR
 * IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
 * OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
 * IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
 * INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
 * NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
 * DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
 * THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
 * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
 * THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
 */

/**
 * @file        as.c
 * @brief       Address space related functions.
 *
 * This file contains address space manipulation functions.
 * Roughly speaking, this is a higher-level client of
 * Virtual Address Translation (VAT) subsystem.
 *
 * Functionality provided by this file allows one to
 * create address space and create, resize and share
 * address space areas.
 *
 * @see page.c
 *
 */

#include <mm/as.h>
#include <arch/mm/as.h>
#include <mm/page.h>
#include <mm/frame.h>
#include <mm/slab.h>
#include <mm/tlb.h>
#include <arch/mm/page.h>
#include <genarch/mm/page_pt.h>
#include <genarch/mm/page_ht.h>
#include <mm/asid.h>
#include <arch/mm/asid.h>
#include <synch/spinlock.h>
#include <synch/mutex.h>
#include <adt/list.h>
#include <adt/btree.h>
#include <proc/task.h>
#include <proc/thread.h>
#include <arch/asm.h>
#include <panic.h>
#include <debug.h>
#include <print.h>
#include <memstr.h>
#include <macros.h>
#include <arch.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <config.h>
#include <align.h>
#include <arch/types.h>
#include <typedefs.h>
#include <syscall/copy.h>
#include <arch/interrupt.h>

/** This structure contains information associated with the shared address space area. */
struct share_info {
        mutex_t lock;           /**< This lock must be acquired only when the as_area lock is held. */
        count_t refcount;       /**< This structure can be deallocated if refcount drops to 0. */
        btree_t pagemap;        /**< B+tree containing complete map of anonymous pages of the shared area. */
};

as_operations_t *as_operations = NULL;

/** Address space lock. It protects inactive_as_with_asid_head. Must be acquired before as_t mutex. */
SPINLOCK_INITIALIZE(as_lock);

/**
 * This list contains address spaces that are not active on any
 * processor and that have valid ASID.
 */
LIST_INITIALIZE(inactive_as_with_asid_head);

/** Kernel address space. */
as_t *AS_KERNEL = NULL;

static int area_flags_to_page_flags(int aflags);
static as_area_t *find_area_and_lock(as_t *as, __address va);
static bool check_area_conflicts(as_t *as, __address va, size_t size, as_area_t *avoid_area);
static void sh_info_remove_reference(share_info_t *sh_info);

/** Initialize address space subsystem. */
void as_init(void)
{
        as_arch_init();
        AS_KERNEL = as_create(FLAG_AS_KERNEL);
        if (!AS_KERNEL)
                panic("can't create kernel address space\n");
        
}

/** Create address space.
 *
 * @param flags Flags that influence way in wich the address space is created.
 */
as_t *as_create(int flags)
{
        as_t *as;

        as = (as_t *) malloc(sizeof(as_t), 0);
        link_initialize(&as->inactive_as_with_asid_link);
        mutex_initialize(&as->lock);
        btree_create(&as->as_area_btree);
        
        if (flags & FLAG_AS_KERNEL)
                as->asid = ASID_KERNEL;
        else
                as->asid = ASID_INVALID;
        
        as->refcount = 0;
        as->page_table = page_table_create(flags);

        return as;
}

/** Free Adress space */
void as_free(as_t *as)
{
        ASSERT(as->refcount == 0);

        /* TODO: free as_areas and other resources held by as */
        /* TODO: free page table */
        free(as);
}

/** Create address space area of common attributes.
 *
 * The created address space area is added to the target address space.
 *
 * @param as Target address space.
 * @param flags Flags of the area memory.
 * @param size Size of area.
 * @param base Base address of area.
 * @param attrs Attributes of the area.
 * @param backend Address space area backend. NULL if no backend is used.
 * @param backend_data NULL or a pointer to an array holding two void *.
 *
 * @return Address space area on success or NULL on failure.
 */
as_area_t *as_area_create(as_t *as, int flags, size_t size, __address base, int attrs,
               mem_backend_t *backend, void **backend_data)
{
        ipl_t ipl;
        as_area_t *a;
        
        if (base % PAGE_SIZE)
                return NULL;

        if (!size)
                return NULL;

        /* Writeable executable areas are not supported. */
        if ((flags & AS_AREA_EXEC) && (flags & AS_AREA_WRITE))
                return NULL;
        
        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        mutex_lock(&as->lock);
        
        if (!check_area_conflicts(as, base, size, NULL)) {
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return NULL;
        }
        
        a = (as_area_t *) malloc(sizeof(as_area_t), 0);

        mutex_initialize(&a->lock);
        
        a->flags = flags;
        a->attributes = attrs;
        a->pages = SIZE2FRAMES(size);
        a->base = base;
        a->sh_info = NULL;
        a->backend = backend;
        if (backend_data) {
                a->backend_data[0] = backend_data[0];
                a->backend_data[1] = backend_data[1];
        }
        btree_create(&a->used_space);
        
        btree_insert(&as->as_area_btree, base, (void *) a, NULL);

        mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);

        return a;
}

/** Find address space area and change it.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param address Virtual address belonging to the area to be changed. Must be page-aligned.
 * @param size New size of the virtual memory block starting at address. 
 * @param flags Flags influencing the remap operation. Currently unused.
 *
 * @return Zero on success or a value from @ref errno.h otherwise.
 */ 
int as_area_resize(as_t *as, __address address, size_t size, int flags)
{
        as_area_t *area;
        ipl_t ipl;
        size_t pages;
        
        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        mutex_lock(&as->lock);
        
        /*
         * Locate the area.
         */
        area = find_area_and_lock(as, address);
        if (!area) {
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOENT;
        }

        if (area->flags & AS_AREA_DEVICE) {
                /*
                 * Remapping of address space areas associated
                 * with memory mapped devices is not supported.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOTSUP;
        }
        if (area->sh_info) {
                /*
                 * Remapping of shared address space areas 
                 * is not supported.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOTSUP;
        }

        pages = SIZE2FRAMES((address - area->base) + size);
        if (!pages) {
                /*
                 * Zero size address space areas are not allowed.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return EPERM;
        }
        
        if (pages < area->pages) {
                bool cond;
                __address start_free = area->base + pages*PAGE_SIZE;

                /*
                 * Shrinking the area.
                 * No need to check for overlaps.
                 */

                /*
                 * Remove frames belonging to used space starting from
                 * the highest addresses downwards until an overlap with
                 * the resized address space area is found. Note that this
                 * is also the right way to remove part of the used_space
                 * B+tree leaf list.
                 */             
                for (cond = true; cond;) {
                        btree_node_t *node;
                
                        ASSERT(!list_empty(&area->used_space.leaf_head));
                        node = list_get_instance(area->used_space.leaf_head.prev, btree_node_t, leaf_link);
                        if ((cond = (bool) node->keys)) {
                                __address b = node->key[node->keys - 1];
                                count_t c = (count_t) node->value[node->keys - 1];
                                int i = 0;
                        
                                if (overlaps(b, c*PAGE_SIZE, area->base, pages*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                                        
                                        if (b + c*PAGE_SIZE <= start_free) {
                                                /*
                                                 * The whole interval fits completely
                                                 * in the resized address space area.
                                                 */
                                                break;
                                        }
                
                                        /*
                                         * Part of the interval corresponding to b and c
                                         * overlaps with the resized address space area.
                                         */
                
                                        cond = false;   /* we are almost done */
                                        i = (start_free - b) >> PAGE_WIDTH;
                                        if (!used_space_remove(area, start_free, c - i))
                                                panic("Could not remove used space.");
                                } else {
                                        /*
                                         * The interval of used space can be completely removed.
                                         */
                                        if (!used_space_remove(area, b, c))
                                                panic("Could not remove used space.\n");
                                }
                        
                                for (; i < c; i++) {
                                        pte_t *pte;
                        
                                        page_table_lock(as, false);
                                        pte = page_mapping_find(as, b + i*PAGE_SIZE);
                                        ASSERT(pte && PTE_VALID(pte) && PTE_PRESENT(pte));
                                        if (area->backend && area->backend->backend_frame_free) {
                                                area->backend->backend_frame_free(area,
                                                        b + i*PAGE_SIZE, PTE_GET_FRAME(pte));
                                        }
                                        page_mapping_remove(as, b + i*PAGE_SIZE);
                                        page_table_unlock(as, false);
                                }
                        }
                }
                /*
                 * Invalidate TLB's.
                 */
                tlb_shootdown_start(TLB_INVL_PAGES, AS->asid, area->base + pages*PAGE_SIZE, area->pages - pages);
                tlb_invalidate_pages(AS->asid, area->base + pages*PAGE_SIZE, area->pages - pages);
                tlb_shootdown_finalize();
        } else {
                /*
                 * Growing the area.
                 * Check for overlaps with other address space areas.
                 */
                if (!check_area_conflicts(as, address, pages * PAGE_SIZE, area)) {
                        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                        mutex_unlock(&as->lock);                
                        interrupts_restore(ipl);
                        return EADDRNOTAVAIL;
                }
        } 

        area->pages = pages;
        
        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
        mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);

        return 0;
}

/** Destroy address space area.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param address Address withing the area to be deleted.
 *
 * @return Zero on success or a value from @ref errno.h on failure. 
 */
int as_area_destroy(as_t *as, __address address)
{
        as_area_t *area;
        __address base;
        ipl_t ipl;
        bool cond;

        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        mutex_lock(&as->lock);

        area = find_area_and_lock(as, address);
        if (!area) {
                mutex_unlock(&as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOENT;
        }

        base = area->base;

        /*
         * Visit only the pages mapped by used_space B+tree.
         * Note that we must be very careful when walking the tree
         * leaf list and removing used space as the leaf list changes
         * unpredictibly after each remove. The solution is to actually
         * not walk the tree at all, but to remove items from the head
         * of the leaf list until there are some keys left.
         */
        for (cond = true; cond;) {
                btree_node_t *node;
                
                ASSERT(!list_empty(&area->used_space.leaf_head));
                node = list_get_instance(area->used_space.leaf_head.next, btree_node_t, leaf_link);
                if ((cond = (bool) node->keys)) {
                        __address b = node->key[0];
                        count_t i;
                        pte_t *pte;
                        
                        for (i = 0; i < (count_t) node->value[0]; i++) {
                                page_table_lock(as, false);
                                pte = page_mapping_find(as, b + i*PAGE_SIZE);
                                ASSERT(pte && PTE_VALID(pte) && PTE_PRESENT(pte));
                                if (area->backend && area->backend->backend_frame_free) {
                                        area->backend->backend_frame_free(area,
                                                b + i*PAGE_SIZE, PTE_GET_FRAME(pte));
                                }
                                page_mapping_remove(as, b + i*PAGE_SIZE);
                                page_table_unlock(as, false);
                        }
                        if (!used_space_remove(area, b, i))
                                panic("Could not remove used space.\n");
                }
        }
        btree_destroy(&area->used_space);

        /*
         * Invalidate TLB's.
         */
        tlb_shootdown_start(TLB_INVL_PAGES, AS->asid, area->base, area->pages);
        tlb_invalidate_pages(AS->asid, area->base, area->pages);
        tlb_shootdown_finalize();

        area->attributes |= AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL;
        
        if (area->sh_info)
                sh_info_remove_reference(area->sh_info);
                
        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);

        /*
         * Remove the empty area from address space.
         */
        btree_remove(&AS->as_area_btree, base, NULL);
        
        free(area);
        
        mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);
        return 0;
}

/** Steal address space area from another task.
 *
 * Address space area is stolen from another task
 * Moreover, any existing mapping
 * is copied as well, providing thus a mechanism
 * for sharing group of pages. The source address
 * space area and any associated mapping is preserved.
 *
 * @param src_task Pointer of source task
 * @param src_base Base address of the source address space area.
 * @param acc_size Expected size of the source area
 * @param dst_base Target base address
 *
 * @return Zero on success or ENOENT if there is no such task or
 *         if there is no such address space area,
 *         EPERM if there was a problem in accepting the area or
 *         ENOMEM if there was a problem in allocating destination
 *         address space area.
 */
int as_area_steal(task_t *src_task, __address src_base, size_t acc_size,
                  __address dst_base)
{
        ipl_t ipl;
        count_t i;
        as_t *src_as;       
        int src_flags;
        size_t src_size;
        as_area_t *src_area, *dst_area;

        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        spinlock_lock(&src_task->lock);
        src_as = src_task->as;
        
        mutex_lock(&src_as->lock);
        src_area = find_area_and_lock(src_as, src_base);
        if (!src_area) {
                /*
                 * Could not find the source address space area.
                 */
                spinlock_unlock(&src_task->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&src_as->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOENT;
        }
        src_size = src_area->pages * PAGE_SIZE;
        src_flags = src_area->flags;
        mutex_unlock(&src_area->lock);
        mutex_unlock(&src_as->lock);

        if (src_size != acc_size) {
                spinlock_unlock(&src_task->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return EPERM;
        }
        /*
         * Create copy of the source address space area.
         * The destination area is created with AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL
         * attribute set which prevents race condition with
         * preliminary as_page_fault() calls.
         */
        dst_area = as_area_create(AS, src_flags, src_size, dst_base, AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL, &anon_backend, NULL);
        if (!dst_area) {
                /*
                 * Destination address space area could not be created.
                 */
                spinlock_unlock(&src_task->lock);
                interrupts_restore(ipl);
                return ENOMEM;
        }
        
        spinlock_unlock(&src_task->lock);
        
        /*
         * Avoid deadlock by first locking the address space with lower address.
         */
        if (AS < src_as) {
                mutex_lock(&AS->lock);
                mutex_lock(&src_as->lock);
        } else {
                mutex_lock(&AS->lock);
                mutex_lock(&src_as->lock);
        }
        
        for (i = 0; i < SIZE2FRAMES(src_size); i++) {
                pte_t *pte;
                __address frame;
                        
                page_table_lock(src_as, false);
                pte = page_mapping_find(src_as, src_base + i*PAGE_SIZE);
                if (pte && PTE_VALID(pte)) {
                        ASSERT(PTE_PRESENT(pte));
                        frame = PTE_GET_FRAME(pte);
                        if (!(src_flags & AS_AREA_DEVICE))
                                frame_reference_add(ADDR2PFN(frame));
                        page_table_unlock(src_as, false);
                } else {
                        page_table_unlock(src_as, false);
                        continue;
                }
                
                page_table_lock(AS, false);
                page_mapping_insert(AS, dst_base + i*PAGE_SIZE, frame, area_flags_to_page_flags(src_flags));
                page_table_unlock(AS, false);
        }

        /*
         * Now the destination address space area has been
         * fully initialized. Clear the AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL
         * attribute.
         */     
        mutex_lock(&dst_area->lock);
        dst_area->attributes &= ~AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL;
        mutex_unlock(&dst_area->lock);
        
        mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
        mutex_unlock(&src_as->lock);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);
        
        return 0;
}

/** Initialize mapping for one page of address space.
 *
 * This functions maps 'page' to 'frame' according
 * to attributes of the address space area to
 * wich 'page' belongs.
 *
 * @param as Target address space.
 * @param page Virtual page within the area.
 * @param frame Physical frame to which page will be mapped.
 */
void as_set_mapping(as_t *as, __address page, __address frame)
{
        as_area_t *area;
        ipl_t ipl;
        
        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        page_table_lock(as, true);
        
        area = find_area_and_lock(as, page);
        if (!area) {
                panic("Page not part of any as_area.\n");
        }

        ASSERT(!area->backend);
        
        page_mapping_insert(as, page, frame, as_area_get_flags(area));
        if (!used_space_insert(area, page, 1))
                panic("Could not insert used space.\n");
        
        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
        page_table_unlock(as, true);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);
}

/** Handle page fault within the current address space.
 *
 * This is the high-level page fault handler. It decides
 * whether the page fault can be resolved by any backend
 * and if so, it invokes the backend to resolve the page
 * fault.
 *
 * Interrupts are assumed disabled.
 *
 * @param page Faulting page.
 * @param access Access mode that caused the fault (i.e. read/write/exec).
 * @param istate Pointer to interrupted state.
 *
 * @return AS_PF_FAULT on page fault, AS_PF_OK on success or AS_PF_DEFER if the
 *         fault was caused by copy_to_uspace() or copy_from_uspace().
 */
int as_page_fault(__address page, pf_access_t access, istate_t *istate)
{
        pte_t *pte;
        as_area_t *area;
        
        if (!THREAD)
                return AS_PF_FAULT;
                
        ASSERT(AS);

        mutex_lock(&AS->lock);
        area = find_area_and_lock(AS, page);    
        if (!area) {
                /*
                 * No area contained mapping for 'page'.
                 * Signal page fault to low-level handler.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
                goto page_fault;
        }

        if (area->attributes & AS_AREA_ATTR_PARTIAL) {
                /*
                 * The address space area is not fully initialized.
                 * Avoid possible race by returning error.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
                goto page_fault;                
        }

        if (!area->backend || !area->backend->backend_page_fault) {
                /*
                 * The address space area is not backed by any backend
                 * or the backend cannot handle page faults.
                 */
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
                goto page_fault;                
        }

        page_table_lock(AS, false);
        
        /*
         * To avoid race condition between two page faults
         * on the same address, we need to make sure
         * the mapping has not been already inserted.
         */
        if ((pte = page_mapping_find(AS, page))) {
                if (PTE_PRESENT(pte)) {
                        page_table_unlock(AS, false);
                        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                        mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
                        return AS_PF_OK;
                }
        }
        
        /*
         * Resort to the backend page fault handler.
         */
        if (area->backend->backend_page_fault(area, page, access) != AS_PF_OK) {
                page_table_unlock(AS, false);
                mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
                mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
                goto page_fault;
        }
        
        page_table_unlock(AS, false);
        mutex_unlock(&area->lock);
        mutex_unlock(&AS->lock);
        return AS_PF_OK;

page_fault:
        if (THREAD->in_copy_from_uspace) {
                THREAD->in_copy_from_uspace = false;
                istate_set_retaddr(istate, (__address) &memcpy_from_uspace_failover_address);
        } else if (THREAD->in_copy_to_uspace) {
                THREAD->in_copy_to_uspace = false;
                istate_set_retaddr(istate, (__address) &memcpy_to_uspace_failover_address);
        } else {
                return AS_PF_FAULT;
        }

        return AS_PF_DEFER;
}

/** Switch address spaces.
 *
 * Note that this function cannot sleep as it is essentially a part of
 * the scheduling. Sleeping here would lead to deadlock on wakeup.
 *
 * @param old Old address space or NULL.
 * @param new New address space.
 */
void as_switch(as_t *old, as_t *new)
{
        ipl_t ipl;
        bool needs_asid = false;
        
        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        spinlock_lock(&as_lock);

        /*
         * First, take care of the old address space.
         */     
        if (old) {
                mutex_lock_active(&old->lock);
                ASSERT(old->refcount);
                if((--old->refcount == 0) && (old != AS_KERNEL)) {
                        /*
                         * The old address space is no longer active on
                         * any processor. It can be appended to the
                         * list of inactive address spaces with assigned
                         * ASID.
                         */
                         ASSERT(old->asid != ASID_INVALID);
                         list_append(&old->inactive_as_with_asid_link, &inactive_as_with_asid_head);
                }
                mutex_unlock(&old->lock);
        }

        /*
         * Second, prepare the new address space.
         */
        mutex_lock_active(&new->lock);
        if ((new->refcount++ == 0) && (new != AS_KERNEL)) {
                if (new->asid != ASID_INVALID)
                        list_remove(&new->inactive_as_with_asid_link);
                else
                        needs_asid = true;      /* defer call to asid_get() until new->lock is released */
        }
        SET_PTL0_ADDRESS(new->page_table);
        mutex_unlock(&new->lock);

        if (needs_asid) {
                /*
                 * Allocation of new ASID was deferred
                 * until now in order to avoid deadlock.
                 */
                asid_t asid;
                
                asid = asid_get();
                mutex_lock_active(&new->lock);
                new->asid = asid;
                mutex_unlock(&new->lock);
        }
        spinlock_unlock(&as_lock);
        interrupts_restore(ipl);
        
        /*
         * Perform architecture-specific steps.
         * (e.g. write ASID to hardware register etc.)
         */
        as_install_arch(new);
        
        AS = new;
}

/** Convert address space area flags to page flags.
 *
 * @param aflags Flags of some address space area.
 *
 * @return Flags to be passed to page_mapping_insert().
 */
int area_flags_to_page_flags(int aflags)
{
        int flags;

        flags = PAGE_USER | PAGE_PRESENT;
        
        if (aflags & AS_AREA_READ)
                flags |= PAGE_READ;
                
        if (aflags & AS_AREA_WRITE)
                flags |= PAGE_WRITE;
        
        if (aflags & AS_AREA_EXEC)
                flags |= PAGE_EXEC;
        
        if (!(aflags & AS_AREA_DEVICE))
                flags |= PAGE_CACHEABLE;
                
        return flags;
}

/** Compute flags for virtual address translation subsytem.
 *
 * The address space area must be locked.
 * Interrupts must be disabled.
 *
 * @param a Address space area.
 *
 * @return Flags to be used in page_mapping_insert().
 */
int as_area_get_flags(as_area_t *a)
{
        return area_flags_to_page_flags(a->flags);
}

/** Create page table.
 *
 * Depending on architecture, create either address space
 * private or global page table.
 *
 * @param flags Flags saying whether the page table is for kernel address space.
 *
 * @return First entry of the page table.
 */
pte_t *page_table_create(int flags)
{
        ASSERT(as_operations);
        ASSERT(as_operations->page_table_create);

        return as_operations->page_table_create(flags);
}

/** Lock page table.
 *
 * This function should be called before any page_mapping_insert(),
 * page_mapping_remove() and page_mapping_find().
 * 
 * Locking order is such that address space areas must be locked
 * prior to this call. Address space can be locked prior to this
 * call in which case the lock argument is false.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param lock If false, do not attempt to lock as->lock.
 */
void page_table_lock(as_t *as, bool lock)
{
        ASSERT(as_operations);
        ASSERT(as_operations->page_table_lock);

        as_operations->page_table_lock(as, lock);
}

/** Unlock page table.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param unlock If false, do not attempt to unlock as->lock.
 */
void page_table_unlock(as_t *as, bool unlock)
{
        ASSERT(as_operations);
        ASSERT(as_operations->page_table_unlock);

        as_operations->page_table_unlock(as, unlock);
}


/** Find address space area and lock it.
 *
 * The address space must be locked and interrupts must be disabled.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param va Virtual address.
 *
 * @return Locked address space area containing va on success or NULL on failure.
 */
as_area_t *find_area_and_lock(as_t *as, __address va)
{
        as_area_t *a;
        btree_node_t *leaf, *lnode;
        int i;
        
        a = (as_area_t *) btree_search(&as->as_area_btree, va, &leaf);
        if (a) {
                /* va is the base address of an address space area */
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                return a;
        }
        
        /*
         * Search the leaf node and the righmost record of its left neighbour
         * to find out whether this is a miss or va belongs to an address
         * space area found there.
         */
        
        /* First, search the leaf node itself. */
        for (i = 0; i < leaf->keys; i++) {
                a = (as_area_t *) leaf->value[i];
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                if ((a->base <= va) && (va < a->base + a->pages * PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        return a;
                }
                mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
        }

        /*
         * Second, locate the left neighbour and test its last record.
         * Because of its position in the B+tree, it must have base < va.
         */
        if ((lnode = btree_leaf_node_left_neighbour(&as->as_area_btree, leaf))) {
                a = (as_area_t *) lnode->value[lnode->keys - 1];
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                if (va < a->base + a->pages * PAGE_SIZE) {
                        return a;
                }
                mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
        }

        return NULL;
}

/** Check area conflicts with other areas.
 *
 * The address space must be locked and interrupts must be disabled.
 *
 * @param as Address space.
 * @param va Starting virtual address of the area being tested.
 * @param size Size of the area being tested.
 * @param avoid_area Do not touch this area. 
 *
 * @return True if there is no conflict, false otherwise.
 */
bool check_area_conflicts(as_t *as, __address va, size_t size, as_area_t *avoid_area)
{
        as_area_t *a;
        btree_node_t *leaf, *node;
        int i;
        
        /*
         * We don't want any area to have conflicts with NULL page.
         */
        if (overlaps(va, size, NULL, PAGE_SIZE))
                return false;
        
        /*
         * The leaf node is found in O(log n), where n is proportional to
         * the number of address space areas belonging to as.
         * The check for conflicts is then attempted on the rightmost
         * record in the left neighbour, the leftmost record in the right
         * neighbour and all records in the leaf node itself.
         */
        
        if ((a = (as_area_t *) btree_search(&as->as_area_btree, va, &leaf))) {
                if (a != avoid_area)
                        return false;
        }
        
        /* First, check the two border cases. */
        if ((node = btree_leaf_node_left_neighbour(&as->as_area_btree, leaf))) {
                a = (as_area_t *) node->value[node->keys - 1];
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                if (overlaps(va, size, a->base, a->pages * PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
                        return false;
                }
                mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
        }
        if ((node = btree_leaf_node_right_neighbour(&as->as_area_btree, leaf))) {
                a = (as_area_t *) node->value[0];
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                if (overlaps(va, size, a->base, a->pages * PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
                        return false;
                }
                mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
        }
        
        /* Second, check the leaf node. */
        for (i = 0; i < leaf->keys; i++) {
                a = (as_area_t *) leaf->value[i];
        
                if (a == avoid_area)
                        continue;
        
                mutex_lock(&a->lock);
                if (overlaps(va, size, a->base, a->pages * PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
                        return false;
                }
                mutex_unlock(&a->lock);
        }

        /*
         * So far, the area does not conflict with other areas.
         * Check if it doesn't conflict with kernel address space.
         */      
        if (!KERNEL_ADDRESS_SPACE_SHADOWED) {
                return !overlaps(va, size, 
                        KERNEL_ADDRESS_SPACE_START, KERNEL_ADDRESS_SPACE_END-KERNEL_ADDRESS_SPACE_START);
        }

        return true;
}

/** Return size of the address space area with given base.  */
size_t as_get_size(__address base)
{
        ipl_t ipl;
        as_area_t *src_area;
        size_t size;

        ipl = interrupts_disable();
        src_area = find_area_and_lock(AS, base);
        if (src_area){
                size = src_area->pages * PAGE_SIZE;
                mutex_unlock(&src_area->lock);
        } else {
                size = 0;
        }
        interrupts_restore(ipl);
        return size;
}

/** Mark portion of address space area as used.
 *
 * The address space area must be already locked.
 *
 * @param a Address space area.
 * @param page First page to be marked.
 * @param count Number of page to be marked.
 *
 * @return 0 on failure and 1 on success.
 */
int used_space_insert(as_area_t *a, __address page, count_t count)
{
        btree_node_t *leaf, *node;
        count_t pages;
        int i;

        ASSERT(page == ALIGN_DOWN(page, PAGE_SIZE));
        ASSERT(count);

        pages = (count_t) btree_search(&a->used_space, page, &leaf);
        if (pages) {
                /*
                 * We hit the beginning of some used space.
                 */
                return 0;
        }

        node = btree_leaf_node_left_neighbour(&a->used_space, leaf);
        if (node) {
                __address left_pg = node->key[node->keys - 1], right_pg = leaf->key[0];
                count_t left_cnt = (count_t) node->value[node->keys - 1], right_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[0];
                
                /*
                 * Examine the possibility that the interval fits
                 * somewhere between the rightmost interval of
                 * the left neigbour and the first interval of the leaf.
                 */
                 
                if (page >= right_pg) {
                        /* Do nothing. */
                } else if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the left interval. */
                        return 0;
                } else if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, right_pg, right_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the right interval. */
                        return 0;                       
                } else if ((page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) && (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg)) {
                        /* The interval can be added by merging the two already present intervals. */
                        node->value[node->keys - 1] += count + right_cnt;
                        btree_remove(&a->used_space, right_pg, leaf);
                        return 1; 
                } else if (page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                        /* The interval can be added by simply growing the left interval. */
                        node->value[node->keys - 1] += count;
                        return 1;
                } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg) {
                        /*
                         * The interval can be addded by simply moving base of the right
                         * interval down and increasing its size accordingly.
                         */
                        leaf->value[0] += count;
                        leaf->key[0] = page;
                        return 1;
                } else {
                        /*
                         * The interval is between both neigbouring intervals,
                         * but cannot be merged with any of them.
                         */
                        btree_insert(&a->used_space, page, (void *) count, leaf);
                        return 1;
                }
        } else if (page < leaf->key[0]) {
                __address right_pg = leaf->key[0];
                count_t right_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[0];
        
                /*
                 * Investigate the border case in which the left neighbour does not
                 * exist but the interval fits from the left.
                 */
                 
                if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, right_pg, right_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the right interval. */
                        return 0;
                } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg) {
                        /*
                         * The interval can be added by moving the base of the right interval down
                         * and increasing its size accordingly.
                         */
                        leaf->key[0] = page;
                        leaf->value[0] += count;
                        return 1;
                } else {
                        /*
                         * The interval doesn't adjoin with the right interval.
                         * It must be added individually.
                         */
                        btree_insert(&a->used_space, page, (void *) count, leaf);
                        return 1;
                }
        }

        node = btree_leaf_node_right_neighbour(&a->used_space, leaf);
        if (node) {
                __address left_pg = leaf->key[leaf->keys - 1], right_pg = node->key[0];
                count_t left_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1], right_cnt = (count_t) node->value[0];
                
                /*
                 * Examine the possibility that the interval fits
                 * somewhere between the leftmost interval of
                 * the right neigbour and the last interval of the leaf.
                 */

                if (page < left_pg) {
                        /* Do nothing. */
                } else if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the left interval. */
                        return 0;
                } else if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, right_pg, right_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the right interval. */
                        return 0;                       
                } else if ((page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) && (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg)) {
                        /* The interval can be added by merging the two already present intervals. */
                        leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1] += count + right_cnt;
                        btree_remove(&a->used_space, right_pg, node);
                        return 1; 
                } else if (page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                        /* The interval can be added by simply growing the left interval. */
                        leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1] +=  count;
                        return 1;
                } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg) {
                        /*
                         * The interval can be addded by simply moving base of the right
                         * interval down and increasing its size accordingly.
                         */
                        node->value[0] += count;
                        node->key[0] = page;
                        return 1;
                } else {
                        /*
                         * The interval is between both neigbouring intervals,
                         * but cannot be merged with any of them.
                         */
                        btree_insert(&a->used_space, page, (void *) count, leaf);
                        return 1;
                }
        } else if (page >= leaf->key[leaf->keys - 1]) {
                __address left_pg = leaf->key[leaf->keys - 1];
                count_t left_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1];
        
                /*
                 * Investigate the border case in which the right neighbour does not
                 * exist but the interval fits from the right.
                 */
                 
                if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        /* The interval intersects with the left interval. */
                        return 0;
                } else if (left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE == page) {
                        /* The interval can be added by growing the left interval. */
                        leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1] += count;
                        return 1;
                } else {
                        /*
                         * The interval doesn't adjoin with the left interval.
                         * It must be added individually.
                         */
                        btree_insert(&a->used_space, page, (void *) count, leaf);
                        return 1;
                }
        }
        
        /*
         * Note that if the algorithm made it thus far, the interval can fit only
         * between two other intervals of the leaf. The two border cases were already
         * resolved.
         */
        for (i = 1; i < leaf->keys; i++) {
                if (page < leaf->key[i]) {
                        __address left_pg = leaf->key[i - 1], right_pg = leaf->key[i];
                        count_t left_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[i - 1], right_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[i];

                        /*
                         * The interval fits between left_pg and right_pg.
                         */

                        if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                                /* The interval intersects with the left interval. */
                                return 0;
                        } else if (overlaps(page, count*PAGE_SIZE, right_pg, right_cnt*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                                /* The interval intersects with the right interval. */
                                return 0;                       
                        } else if ((page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) && (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg)) {
                                /* The interval can be added by merging the two already present intervals. */
                                leaf->value[i - 1] += count + right_cnt;
                                btree_remove(&a->used_space, right_pg, leaf);
                                return 1; 
                        } else if (page == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                /* The interval can be added by simply growing the left interval. */
                                leaf->value[i - 1] += count;
                                return 1;
                        } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == right_pg) {
                                /*
                                 * The interval can be addded by simply moving base of the right
                                 * interval down and increasing its size accordingly.
                                 */
                                leaf->value[i] += count;
                                leaf->key[i] = page;
                                return 1;
                        } else {
                                /*
                                 * The interval is between both neigbouring intervals,
                                 * but cannot be merged with any of them.
                                 */
                                btree_insert(&a->used_space, page, (void *) count, leaf);
                                return 1;
                        }
                }
        }

        panic("Inconsistency detected while adding %d pages of used space at %P.\n", count, page);
}

/** Mark portion of address space area as unused.
 *
 * The address space area must be already locked.
 *
 * @param a Address space area.
 * @param page First page to be marked.
 * @param count Number of page to be marked.
 *
 * @return 0 on failure and 1 on success.
 */
int used_space_remove(as_area_t *a, __address page, count_t count)
{
        btree_node_t *leaf, *node;
        count_t pages;
        int i;

        ASSERT(page == ALIGN_DOWN(page, PAGE_SIZE));
        ASSERT(count);

        pages = (count_t) btree_search(&a->used_space, page, &leaf);
        if (pages) {
                /*
                 * We are lucky, page is the beginning of some interval.
                 */
                if (count > pages) {
                        return 0;
                } else if (count == pages) {
                        btree_remove(&a->used_space, page, leaf);
                        return 1;
                } else {
                        /*
                         * Find the respective interval.
                         * Decrease its size and relocate its start address.
                         */
                        for (i = 0; i < leaf->keys; i++) {
                                if (leaf->key[i] == page) {
                                        leaf->key[i] += count*PAGE_SIZE;
                                        leaf->value[i] -= count;
                                        return 1;
                                }
                        }
                        goto error;
                }
        }

        node = btree_leaf_node_left_neighbour(&a->used_space, leaf);
        if (node && page < leaf->key[0]) {
                __address left_pg = node->key[node->keys - 1];
                count_t left_cnt = (count_t) node->value[node->keys - 1];

                if (overlaps(left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE, page, count*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                /*
                                 * The interval is contained in the rightmost interval
                                 * of the left neighbour and can be removed by
                                 * updating the size of the bigger interval.
                                 */
                                node->value[node->keys - 1] -= count;
                                return 1;
                        } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE < left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                count_t new_cnt;
                                
                                /*
                                 * The interval is contained in the rightmost interval
                                 * of the left neighbour but its removal requires
                                 * both updating the size of the original interval and
                                 * also inserting a new interval.
                                 */
                                new_cnt = ((left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) - (page + count*PAGE_SIZE)) >> PAGE_WIDTH;
                                node->value[node->keys - 1] -= count + new_cnt;
                                btree_insert(&a->used_space, page + count*PAGE_SIZE, (void *) new_cnt, leaf);
                                return 1;
                        }
                }
                return 0;
        } else if (page < leaf->key[0]) {
                return 0;
        }
        
        if (page > leaf->key[leaf->keys - 1]) {
                __address left_pg = leaf->key[leaf->keys - 1];
                count_t left_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1];

                if (overlaps(left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE, page, count*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                        if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                /*
                                 * The interval is contained in the rightmost interval
                                 * of the leaf and can be removed by updating the size
                                 * of the bigger interval.
                                 */
                                leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1] -= count;
                                return 1;
                        } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE < left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                count_t new_cnt;
                                
                                /*
                                 * The interval is contained in the rightmost interval
                                 * of the leaf but its removal requires both updating
                                 * the size of the original interval and
                                 * also inserting a new interval.
                                 */
                                new_cnt = ((left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) - (page + count*PAGE_SIZE)) >> PAGE_WIDTH;
                                leaf->value[leaf->keys - 1] -= count + new_cnt;
                                btree_insert(&a->used_space, page + count*PAGE_SIZE, (void *) new_cnt, leaf);
                                return 1;
                        }
                }
                return 0;
        }       
        
        /*
         * The border cases have been already resolved.
         * Now the interval can be only between intervals of the leaf. 
         */
        for (i = 1; i < leaf->keys - 1; i++) {
                if (page < leaf->key[i]) {
                        __address left_pg = leaf->key[i - 1];
                        count_t left_cnt = (count_t) leaf->value[i - 1];

                        /*
                         * Now the interval is between intervals corresponding to (i - 1) and i.
                         */
                        if (overlaps(left_pg, left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE, page, count*PAGE_SIZE)) {
                                if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE == left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                        /*
                                        * The interval is contained in the interval (i - 1)
                                         * of the leaf and can be removed by updating the size
                                         * of the bigger interval.
                                         */
                                        leaf->value[i - 1] -= count;
                                        return 1;
                                } else if (page + count*PAGE_SIZE < left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) {
                                        count_t new_cnt;
                                
                                        /*
                                         * The interval is contained in the interval (i - 1)
                                         * of the leaf but its removal requires both updating
                                         * the size of the original interval and
                                         * also inserting a new interval.
                                         */
                                        new_cnt = ((left_pg + left_cnt*PAGE_SIZE) - (page + count*PAGE_SIZE)) >> PAGE_WIDTH;
                                        leaf->value[i - 1] -= count + new_cnt;
                                        btree_insert(&a->used_space, page + count*PAGE_SIZE, (void *) new_cnt, leaf);
                                        return 1;
                                }
                        }
                        return 0;
                }
        }

error:
        panic("Inconsistency detected while removing %d pages of used space from %P.\n", count, page);
}

/** Remove reference to address space area share info.
 *
 * If the reference count drops to 0, the sh_info is deallocated.
 *
 * @param sh_info Pointer to address space area share info.
 */
void sh_info_remove_reference(share_info_t *sh_info)
{
        bool dealloc = false;

        mutex_lock(&sh_info->lock);
        ASSERT(sh_info->refcount);
        if (--sh_info->refcount == 0) {
                dealloc = true;
                bool cond;
                
                /*
                 * Now walk carefully the pagemap B+tree and free/remove
                 * reference from all frames found there.
                 */
                for (cond = true; cond;) {
                        btree_node_t *node;
                        
                        ASSERT(!list_empty(&sh_info->pagemap.leaf_head));
                        node = list_get_instance(sh_info->pagemap.leaf_head.next, btree_node_t, leaf_link);
                        if ((cond = node->keys)) {
                                frame_free(ADDR2PFN((__address) node->value[0]));
                                btree_remove(&sh_info->pagemap, node->key[0], node);
                        }
                }
                
        }
        mutex_unlock(&sh_info->lock);
        
        if (dealloc) {
                btree_destroy(&sh_info->pagemap);
                free(sh_info);
        }
}

static int anon_page_fault(as_area_t *area, __address addr, pf_access_t access);
static void anon_frame_free(as_area_t *area, __address page, __address frame);

/*
 * Anonymous memory backend.
 */
mem_backend_t anon_backend = {
        .backend_page_fault = anon_page_fault,
        .backend_frame_free = anon_frame_free
};

/** Service a page fault in the anonymous memory address space area.
 *
 * The address space area and page tables must be already locked.
 *
 * @param area Pointer to the address space area.
 * @param addr Faulting virtual address.
 * @param access Access mode that caused the fault (i.e. read/write/exec).
 *
 * @return AS_PF_FAULT on failure (i.e. page fault) or AS_PF_OK on success (i.e. serviced).
 */
int anon_page_fault(as_area_t *area, __address addr, pf_access_t access)
{
        __address frame;

        if (area->sh_info) {
                btree_node_t *leaf;
                
                /*
                 * The area is shared, chances are that the mapping can be found
                 * in the pagemap of the address space area share info structure.
                 * In the case that the pagemap does not contain the respective
                 * mapping, a new frame is allocated and the mapping is created.
                 */
                mutex_lock(&area->sh_info->lock);
                frame = (__address) btree_search(&area->sh_info->pagemap, ALIGN_DOWN(addr, PAGE_SIZE), &leaf);
                if (!frame) {
                        bool allocate = true;
                        int i;
                        
                        /*
                         * Zero can be returned as a valid frame address.
                         * Just a small workaround.
                         */
                        for (i = 0; i < leaf->keys; i++) {
                                if (leaf->key[i] == ALIGN_DOWN(addr, PAGE_SIZE)) {
                                        allocate = false;
                                        break;
                                }
                        }
                        if (allocate) {
                                frame = PFN2ADDR(frame_alloc(ONE_FRAME, 0));
                                memsetb(PA2KA(frame), FRAME_SIZE, 0);
                                
                                /*
                                 * Insert the address of the newly allocated frame to the pagemap.
                                 */
                                btree_insert(&area->sh_info->pagemap, ALIGN_DOWN(addr, PAGE_SIZE), (void *) frame, leaf);
                        }
                }
                mutex_unlock(&area->sh_info->lock);
        } else {

                /*
                 * In general, there can be several reasons that
                 * can have caused this fault.
                 *
                 * - non-existent mapping: the area is an anonymous
                 *   area (e.g. heap or stack) and so far has not been
                 *   allocated a frame for the faulting page
                 *
                 * - non-present mapping: another possibility,
                 *   currently not implemented, would be frame
                 *   reuse; when this becomes a possibility,
                 *   do not forget to distinguish between
                 *   the different causes
                 */
                frame = PFN2ADDR(frame_alloc(ONE_FRAME, 0));
                memsetb(PA2KA(frame), FRAME_SIZE, 0);
        }
        
        /*
         * Map 'page' to 'frame'.
         * Note that TLB shootdown is not attempted as only new information is being
         * inserted into page tables.
         */
        page_mapping_insert(AS, addr, frame, as_area_get_flags(area));
        if (!used_space_insert(area, ALIGN_DOWN(addr, PAGE_SIZE), 1))
                panic("Could not insert used space.\n");
                
        return AS_PF_OK;
}

/** Free a frame that is backed by the anonymous memory backend.
 *
 * The address space area and page tables must be already locked.
 *
 * @param area Ignored.
 * @param page Ignored.
 * @param frame Frame to be released.
 */
void anon_frame_free(as_area_t *area, __address page, __address frame)
{
        frame_free(ADDR2PFN(frame));
}

/*
 * Address space related syscalls.
 */

/** Wrapper for as_area_create(). */
__native sys_as_area_create(__address address, size_t size, int flags)
{
        if (as_area_create(AS, flags, size, address, AS_AREA_ATTR_NONE, &anon_backend, NULL))
                return (__native) address;
        else
                return (__native) -1;
}

/** Wrapper for as_area_resize. */
__native sys_as_area_resize(__address address, size_t size, int flags)
{
        return (__native) as_area_resize(AS, address, size, 0);
}

/** Wrapper for as_area_destroy. */
__native sys_as_area_destroy(__address address)
{
        return (__native) as_area_destroy(AS, address);
}